Learning for basic School

Kogntif Learning Theory
Kogntif Learning Theory: Basic Concepts and strategy. The Learning Theory (Discovery Learning). Theory is presented by Jerome Bruner (1966). Is an approach to learning, where students interact with their environment with the way mengeksplor and manipulate objects, grapple with a number of questions and controversy, or to experiment. Basic idea of this theory is the students will easily remember the concept of a concept if they get themselves through the invention of the learning process. (The principle of learning: selidiki / inquiri and find / discover).

Jerome Bruner also introduce the concept of development kognisi children who represent the 3 forms of representation:
1. Enactive: The children from activities such as movement of the direct experience or concrete activities
2. Iconic: The period when children's knowledge obtained through the course picture or other graphic images such as film and static.
3. Symbolic: A stage where the child is able to understand or build knowledge through a process bernalar using language symbols such as words or other abstract simbolisasi.
Learning theory means

Theory given by David Ausebel (1969). He argued that teachers should be able to develop kongitif potential students through the learning process meaningful. Material that is meaningful lessons that match the new concept of structure in kognisi students.

Just as Bruner and Gagne, Ausebel thought that the learning activities of students, They are located mainly at the level of basic education will be more useful if they were directly involved in the activities. However, students in higher education, the activities will directly sequester a lot of time. For them, the more effective when teachers use a description, map concepts, demonstrations, diagrams and illustrations.

The steps that are usually done to implement meaningful learning Ausebel as follows:
1. Advance Organizer (Handout)
Early delivery of the material that students will be expected of students will be mentally ready to accept the material if they mengatahui before what will be submitted by teachers.
2. Progressive Differensial
Learning materials that teachers should be gradual. Begins with the issues or the general concept, and then proceed to the matters specifically, along with examples.
3. Integrative Reconciliation
The explanation given by the teacher about the similarities and differences in the concepts they know the concept of a recently learned.
4. Consolidation
The material in the form of many more examples or exercises so that students can understand more and more ready to accept new material.
Information Processing Model

Theory is presented by Robert Gagne (1970) and argues that learning is a process where students are involved in activities that allow them to have the ability not previously owned.

There are 8 levels of learning ability, where ability to learn on a certain level determined by the ability to study at the sebelumya. The 8 levels of study are:

1. Signal Learning
Signal from the views / didengarnya, the child will give a certain response.
2. Stimulus - Response Learning
A child who gives vocal or physical responses obtained after the stimulus - response to a simple
3. Chaining
Children's ability to combine two or more stimulus to study the results - a simple response. Channing only limited movement in the series (not a series of oral language products.
4. Verbal Association
Form of merger that involves the study of language units, such as naming an object / objects.
5. Multiple Discrimination
Students' ability to connect several previous chainning ability.
6. Concept Learning
Children learn the concept of means capable of response to the stimulus that comes through abstraknya characteristics. Through understanding the concept of students able to identify the other objects of different sizes, colors, and the material, but still has kararkteristik of the object itself.
7. Principle Learning
Students' ability to connect a concept with other concepts.
8. Problem Solving
Student able to apply the principles that have been learned to achieve a target.

Meanwhile, there are three main components in the processing of information, namely:

Short Memory
LONG-TERM Memory
REGISTER PENGINDERAAN

Forget the causes that occur in the process of interference, namely:
Lost Causes
Obstacles Proactive: Where berinterferensi with the task and learned
Obstacles Retroaktif: Where, when learning a second job to make someone forget what has been learned previously
Cognitive strategies

Cognitive skills is a strategy that's organized in a function to manage and monitor the use of concepts and rules, or the internal capabilities that can be organized to assist students in the learning process, the process of thinking, problem solving and decision making (Gagne, 1974).

Stretegi cognitive ability is the highest of the cognitive domain (Gagne's Taxonomy) after analysis, synthesis and evaluation (Bloom Taxonomy).

The type of cognitive strategies, including:
1. Consider strategies and make the observation effectively
2. Strategies to face the material that encodes for a long-term storage (image forming, focusing, scanning etc.)
3. Strategy recall (retrival), (mnemonic system, visual images, Rhyming)
4. Problem-solving strategies

Pemerolehan cognitive strategies
Pemerolehan kerapkali immediately obtained and its use more reliable through training and practice.

Learning conditions for cognitive strategies, is determined by two things:
1. Conditions in the student
Understanding the concept with the many times in the grind
2. Conditions in the learning situation
Strategy oriented tasks and found by the learners
Cognitive Development Model

This model presented by Jean Piaget (1896-1980). According to Piaget there are four stages of human development kognisi, as follows:

1. Sensorimotor Level (0-2 yr)
Children begin to learn and the ability to control their environment through five indra and gerakannya. Behavior of infants at this stage based solely on the stimulus it receives. Around the age of 8 months, infants have the knowledge of object permanence is even though the object is not visible at any time before the eyes, does not mean that the object does not exist. Before the age of 8 months the baby is generally thought that the object that does not mean they do not see any. At this stage, the baby has a world based on pengamatannya on the basis of movement / activity that is done people disekelilingnya.

2. Phase Preoporational (2-7 yr)
Children at this stage is capable of thinking before acting, although the ability berpikirnya not until the level of logical thinking ability. The period of 2-7 yr, the life of children is also marked with a self-centered attitude, which they think subjectively and objectivity can not afford to see the views of others, so that their views difficult to accept other people.

Characteristics of children who have growth kognisinya on stage preporational is ketidakmampuannya distinguish 2 objects that have the same period, the amount or volume of a fixed shape although change. Not because of abstract thinking, the children in this age is easier to learn if the teachers involve the use of concrete objects rather than just using words only.

3. Phase Concrete (7-11 yr)
In general, at this stage children have the ability to understand the concept of conservation (concept of conservacy), although that is an object changed shape, but the period, the number or volume is fixed. Children are also able to make observations, assess and evaluate, so they are not as self-centered past. Children's ability to think at this stage still in the form of concrete, they have not been able to abstract thinking, so they are also only able to finish shoptalk lessons of concrete. Learning activities that involve students in involving students in direct experience is very effective compared with the explanation of teachers in the form of verbal (words).

4. Formal Operations stage (11 yr and over)
At this stage, the ability of students already on stage, abstract thinking. They were able to make a hypothesis, the consequences that might occur and to test the hypothesis they create. If a problem faced on the students in the development of formal operational stage is able to formulate all of the possibilities and determine the likelihood that the most likely occur based on the ability to think logically and analistis.

Although in the beginning, piaget thought that at the age of about 15 years, almost all young people will reach the stage of formal development of this operation. However, the fact that many high school students and even some adults are not once has the ability to think in this level.
Cognitive theory: The Konstruktivisme

Basically, the knowledge we have is konstruktivisme (formation) our own (Von Glaseserfeld, 1996). Someone who will shape the study, he does not just imitate or reflect what is taught or who read it, but to create understanding of both personal and social (Resnick, 1983; Bettencourt, 1989). Knowledge is formed through interactions with the environment.

In order to understand something learned, the learners should be able to find, organize, store, and thinking out a concept or event in the process of the active and constructive. Through the process of formation of the concept continue to be built so understanding (Bettencourt, 1989).

Konstruktivisme views
Teaching is not a move knowledge from teacher to student, but an activity that allows students to build their own knowledge (Bettencourt, 1989).

Think that both have more important than the correct answers (Von Glasersfeld, 1989).

Konstruktivisme Ideas About Knowledge
Student mengkonstruksi cognitive schemes, categories, concepts and knowledge in building the structure, so that each student has a cognitive scheme, category and a different structure

The process of reflection and abstraksi become someone very influential in the contribution of knowledge (Reflection / abstraction as primary).

Factors Affecting the Construction Knowledge
1. Results that have been owned construction (constructed Knowledge)
2. Domain experience (Domain Of Experience)
3. Network cognitive structures (Cognitive Existing Structure)

In the meaning Konstruktivisme
a. Learning means the form of meaning
b. Construction is a process that continuously
c. Learning activities rather than collecting facts, but with the thought process of creating understanding

In the role Konstruktivisme
a. Provide the learning experience
b. Provide activities that stimulate student keingintahuan
c. Provide facilities that make students productive thinking
d. Monitor and evaluate the results of student learning

Learning process Konstruktivisme
a. Orientation (Apersepsi)
b. Elisitasi, ideas students Disclosure
c. Restructuring ideas: (explain ideas, berargumentasi, developing new ideas and evaluate new ideas)

In the evaluation Konstruktivisme
Alternative Assessment, using potofolio, observation process, and simulation games, group dynamics, case studies and performance appraisal

Learning Strategies Konstruktivisme
Among others, Student-Centered Strategic Learning, where students learn active, independent learning, cooperative and collaborative learning, self-regulated learning and generative learning.

Konstruktivisme Implications of Learning Process
Based on the principle that "In a study must be someone mengkonstruksi own knowledge," then the teacher should make students actively participate in building or mengkonstruksi knowledge.

There are two questions that need to be teachers, namely:
1. Experiences that should be provided for students in order to expedite the learning process
2. How learners can provide or disclose what they know to give meaning to the experience that (Tobin, Trippin and Gallard, 1994)

Learning model that describes the principles konstruktivisme: a vast opportunity for students to the ideas and thoughts, assisted students to think and reflect more knowledge in their activities such as discussion groups, debates, writing paper, make dimajalah research reports, discussions with experts, examine the in the, the question and protest against what was the teacher, etc..
Theory Konstruktivisme

Over the last two Dasa warsa this, the education obtained from the theory of mind konstruktivisme so many countries the changes are fundamental to the system and the practice of their education, and Competency-Based Curriculum (KBK) also did not escape the influence of this theory. Paul Suparno in "Philosophy in Education Konstruktivisme" trying to analyze the implications of the practice of philosophy in education konstruktivisme.

Konstruktivisme is a philosophy that stresses that knowledge is knowledge formation (construction) our own (Von Glaserfeld). Knowledge is not imitation of reality, not the picture of the world the fact that there is. Knowledge is the result of construction activities through cognitive someone making structure, categories, concepts, and schemes to establish the necessary knowledge.

If behaviourism emphasizes skill or behavior as a goal of education, while emphasizing maturasionisme knowledge developed in accordance with age, while konstruktivisme emphasize development and understanding of the concept in depth, active knowledge construction as students are made. If someone does not actively build the knowledge, even though old age will not be developing knowledge. Considered a correct knowledge when knowledge is useful to confront and solve the problem or phenomenon that is suitable. Knowledge can not be transferred as such, but must itself be interpreted by each person. Knowledge is also not something that already exists, but a process that developed continuously. In the process keaktivan determine someone is in developing knowledge.

Psychologist Jean Piaget was the first to use the philosophy konstruktivisme, while the theory of knowledge known as the theory of cognitive adaptation. Similarly, with each organism must adapt to the physical environment to be able to survive, as well as the structure of the human mind. Dealing with the human challenges, experiences, new symptoms, and issues that must be ditanggapinya secaca cognitive (mental). For that, people thought the scheme should be developed more detailed or general, or need to change, and said the experience was. That way, a form of knowledge and always evolving.

The process includes:
1. Schemes / skemata is a cognitive structure which someone adapt and continue to have mental development in interaction with the environment. The scheme also works as categories utnuk identify the stimulus that comes, and growing.
2. Asimilasi is the process of cognitive change in the scheme which still retains the concept of first, or just add details.
3. Accommodation is the process of establishment of the scheme or because the initial concept is not suitable anymore.
4. Equilibrasi is a balance between asimilasi and accommodation so that someone can unify the experience outside the structure dalamya (skemata). The process of development of the intellect of someone walking disequilibrium toward equilibrium through asimilasi and accommodation.